Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics
Astrology refers to any of several systems, traditions or beliefs in which knowledge of the apparent positions of celestial bodies is held to be useful in understanding, interpreting, and organizing knowledge about human affairs and events on Earth. A practitioner of astrology is called an astrologer or, less often, an astrologist. Historically the term mathematicus was used to denote a person proficient in astrology, astronomy, and mathematics.[1][2][3]
The word "astrology" is derived from the Greek αστρολογία, from άστρον, astron, ("star") and λόγος (logos), which has a variety of meanings generally related to "systematic thought or speech." Logos is written in English as the suffix -ology, "study or discipline."
Although the two fields share a common origin, modern astronomy as practiced today is not to be confused with astrology. While astronomy is the study and observation of celestial objects and their movements through space, astrology is the study of the supposed correlation of those objects with earthly affairs. Astrology is considered as a form of divination by some astrologers[4][5], and as a pseudoscience by a number of critics [6][7].
Description
The core beliefs of astrology were prevalent in most of the ancient world and are epitomized in the Hermetic maxim As Above, So Below. The famous mathematicus Tycho Brahe also used a similar phrase to justify his studies in astrology: Suspiciendo despicio — "By looking up I see downward." Although the principle that events in the heavens are mirrored by those on Earth was one generally held in most traditions of astrology across the world, historically in the West there has been a debate among astrologers over the nature of the mechanism behind astrology and whether or not celestial bodies are only signs or portents of events, or if they are actual causes of events through some sort of force or mechanism.
Many of those who practice astrology believe the positions of certain celestial bodies either influence or correlate with people's personality traits, important events in their lives, physical characteristics, and to some extent their destiny. However, there is some agreement amongst modern astrologers that the universe acts as a single unit, so that any happening in any part of it inevitably is reflected in every other part (thus "as above, so below" is still held to be true).
All astrological traditions are based on the relative positions and movements of various real and construed celestial bodies as seen at the time and place of the event being studied. These are chiefly the Sun, Moon, the planets and the lunar nodes. The calculations performed in casting a horoscope involve arithmetic and simple geometry, which serve to locate the apparent position of heavenly bodies on desired dates and times based on astronomical tables. The frame of reference for such apparent positions is defined by the local horizon (Ascendant) and midheaven (Medium Coeli). This frame is typically further divided into the twelve astrological houses.
In past centuries astrologers often relied on close observation of celestial objects and the charting of their movements, and therefore astrology may be considered a protoscience in this regard. Today astrologers use data drawn up by astronomers, which are transformed to a set of astrological tables called an ephemeris, showing the changing zodiacal positions of the heavenly bodies through time.
Traditions
There are many different traditions of astrology, some of which share similar features due to the transmission of astrological doctrines from one culture to another. Other traditions developed in isolation and hold completely different doctrines, although they too share some similar features due to the fact that they are drawing on similar astronomical sources, i.e. planets, stars, etc.
Significant traditions of astrology include but are not limited to:
Modern Western astrology with its specific subsets
+ Modern tropical and sidereal horoscopic astrology + Hamburg School of Astrology * Uranian astrology, subset of the Hamburg School + Cosmobiology + Psychological astrology or astropsychology
Chinese astrology
Persian-Arabic astrology
Kabbalistic astrology
Mesoamerican astrology
Tibetan astrology
Horoscopic astrology
Main article: Horoscopic astrology
Horoscopic astrology is a very specific and complex system of astrology that was developed in the Mediterranean region and specifically Hellenistic Egypt sometime around the late 2nd or early 1st century BCE [8] that deals largely with astrological charts cast for specific moments in time in order to interpret the inherent meaning underlying the alignment of the planets at that moment based on specific sets of rules and guidelines. One of the defining characteristics of this form of astrology that makes it distinct from other traditions is the computation of the degree of the Eastern horizon rising against the backdrop of the ecliptic at the specific moment under examination, otherwise known as the ascendant. Horoscopic astrology has been the most influential and widespread form of astrology across the world, especially in Africa, India, Europe and the Middle East, and there are several major traditions of horoscopic astrology including Indian, Hellenistic, Medieval, and most other modern Western traditions of astrology.
The horoscope
Central to horoscopic astrology and its branches is the calculation of a horoscope or what has recently become known as an astrological chart. This is a diagrammatic representation in two dimensions of the celestial bodies' apparent positions in the heavens from the vantage of a location on Earth at a given time and place. The horoscope of an individual's birth is called a natal chart. In ancient Hellenistic astrology the rising sign or ascendant demarcated the first celestial house of a horoscope, and the word for the ascendant in Greek was horoskopos. This is the word that the term "horoscope" derives from and in modern times it has come to be used as a general term for an astrological chart as a whole. Other commonly used names for the horoscope/natal chart in English include natus, birth-chart, astrological chart, astro-chart, celestial map, sky- map, star-chart, nativity, cosmogram, vitasphere, soulprint, radical chart, radix, or simply chart, among others.
The tropical and sidereal zodiacs
The path of the sun across the heavens as seen from Earth during a full year is called the ecliptic. This, and the nearby band of sky followed by the visible planets, is called the zodiac.
The majority of Western astrologers base their work on the tropical zodiac, which evenly divides the ecliptic into 12 segments of 30 degrees each with the start of the Zodiac (Aries 0°) being the Sun's position at the March equinox. The zodiacal signs in this system bear no relation to the constellations of the same name but stay aligned to the months and seasons. The tropical zodiac is used as a historical coordinate system in astronomy.
All Jyotish (Hindu) and a few Western astrologers use the sidereal zodiac, which uses the same evenly divided ecliptic but which approximately stays aligned to the positions of the observable constellations with the same name as the zodiacal signs. The sidereal zodiac is computed from the tropical zodiac by adding an offset called Ayanamsa. This offset changes with the precession of the equinoxes.
Branches of horoscopic astrology
Every tradition of horoscopic astrology can be divided into four specific branches which are directed towards specific subjects or used for specific purposes. Often this involves using a unique set of techniques or a different application of the core principles of the system to a different area. Many other subsets and applications of astrology are derived from the four fundamental branches.
There are four major branches of horoscopic astrology.
Natal astrology, the study of a person's natal chart in order to gain information about the individual and his/her life experience.
Katarchic astrology, which includes both electional and event astrology. The former uses astrology to determine the most auspicious moment to begin an enterprise or undertaking, and the latter to understand everything about an event from the time at which it took place.
Horary astrology, a system of astrology used to answer a specific question by studying the chart of the moment the question is posed to an astrologer.
Mundane astrology, is the application of astrology to world events, including weather, earthquakes and the rise and fall of empires or religions.
History of astrology
Main article: History of astrology
The origins of much of astrology that would later develop in Asia, Europe and the Middle East are found among the ancient Babylonians and their system of celestial omens that began to be compiled around the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE. This system of celestial omens later spread either directly or indirectly through the Babylonians to other areas such as India, China and Greece where it merged with pre-existing indigenous forms of astrology. This Babylonian astrology came to Greece initially as early as the middle of the 4th century BCE, and then around the late 2nd or early 1st century BCE after the Alexandrian conquests, this Babylonian astrology was mixed with the Egyptian tradition of Decanic astrology to create Horoscopic astrology. This new form of astrology, which appears to have originated in Alexandrian Egypt, quickly spread across the ancient world into Europe, the Middle East and India.
Many prominent scientists, such as Nicholas Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, Carl Gustav Jung and others, significantly contributed to astrology.[9]
Effects on world culture
Astrology has had a profound influence over the past few thousand years on Western and Eastern cultures. In the middle ages, when even the learned of the time believed in astrology, the system of heavenly spheres and bodies was believed to reflect on the system of knowledge and the world itself below.
Language
Influenza, from Medieval Latin influentia meaning influence, was so named because doctors once believed epidemics to be caused by unfavorable planetary and stellar influences. The word "disaster" comes from the Latin "dis-aster" meaning "bad star". Also, the adjectives "lunatic" (Moon), "mercurial" (Mercury), "martial" (Mars), "jovial" (Jupiter/Jove), and "saturnine" (Saturn) are all old words used to describe personal qualities said to resemble or be highly influenced by the astrological characteristics of the planet, some of which are derived from the attributes of the ancient Roman gods they are named after. More information about planetary linguistics can be found on this site.
Astrology as a descriptive language for the mind
Different astrological traditions are dependent on a particular culture's prevailing mythology. These varied mythologies naturally reflect the culture(s) they emerge from. Images from these mythological systems are usually understandable to natives of the culture they are a part of. Most classicists think that Western astrology is dependent on Greek mythology.
Many writers, notably Geoffrey Chaucer and William Shakespeare[10], used astrological symbolism to add subtlety and nuance to the description of their characters' motivation(s). An understanding of astrological symbolism is needed to fully appreciate such literature. Some modern thinkers, notably Carl Jung,[11] believe in its descriptive powers regarding the mind without necessarily subscribing to its predictive claims. For others the predictive element was important and necessary; for example, Benjamin Franklin practiced and published on astrology (see Poor Richard's Almanac). Consequently, some look at astrology as a way of learning about one self and one's motivations. Increasingly, psychologists and historians [12] have become interested in Jung's theory of the fundamentality and indissolubility of archetypes in the human mind and their correlation with the symbols of the horoscope.
Western astrology and alchemy
Main article: Astrology and alchemy
Alchemy in the Western World and other locations where it was widely practiced was (and in many cases still is) closely allied and intertwined with traditional Babylonian-Greek style astrology; in numerous ways they were built to complement each other in the search for hidden knowledge. Astrology has used the concept of classical elements from antiquity up until the present. Most modern astrologers use the four classical elements extensively, and indeed it is still viewed as a critical part of interpreting the astrological chart. Traditionally, each of the seven planets in the solar system as known to the ancients was associated with, held dominion over, and ruled a certain metal. See also: Astrology and the classical elements.
The seven liberal arts and Western astrology
In medieval Europe, a university education was divided into seven distinct areas, each represented by a particular planet and known as the Seven Liberal Arts.
Dante Alighieri speculated that these arts, which grew into the sciences we know today, fitted the same structure as the planets. As the arts were seen as operating in ascending order, so were the planets and so Grammar was assigned to the quickest moving celestial body (the Moon) and so on, culminating in Astronomia which was thought to be astrologically ruled by Saturn, the slowest moving and furthest out planet known at the time. After this sequence wisdom was supposed to have been achieved by the medieval university student.
Astrology and science
Few astrologers today believe that modern science can provide a causal relationship between heavenly bodies and earthly events[13]. However, a number of researchers have called for empirical studies based on statistics. Many astrologers have posited acausal purely correlative relationships between astrological observations and events, such as the theory of synchronicity[14] proposed by Jung. Others have posited a basis in divination. [15] Still others have argued that empirical correlations can stand on their own epistemologically and do not need to support any theory or mechanism.[16]
There is a clear consensus belief within the contemporary scientific community that astrology lacks a relationship to science and the discipline is generally labelled a pseudoscience [17][18][19]. Astrology has been criticized both by scientific bodies and individual scientists [20] [21][22]. In 1975, the American Humanist Association, which advocates humanism, published one of the best known criticisms of astrology, characterising those who continue to have faith as doing so "in spite of the fact that there is no verified scientific basis for their beliefs, and indeed that there is strong evidence to the contrary."[23] Some scientists, however, objected to the Humanist article. The renowned astronomer and skeptic Carl Sagan, in his letter to the editor on this controversial article, stated: "I find myself unable to endorse the "Objections to Astrology" statement, not because I feel that astrology has any validity whatsoever, but because I felt and still feel that the tone of the statement is authoritarian. The fundamental point is not that the origins of astrology are shrouded in superstition. This is true as well for chemistry, medicine, and astronomy, to mention only three. To discuss the psychological motivation of those who believe in astrology seems to me quite peripheral to the issue of its validity. That we can think of no mechanism for astrology is relevant but unconvincing. No mechanism was known, for example, for continental drift when it was proposed by Wegener. Nevertheless, we see that Wegener was right, and those who objected on the grounds of unavailable mechanism were wrong. Statements...that appear to have an authoritarian tone...confirm the impression that scientists are rigid and closed-minded" [24] A growing number of people believe astrology has a potential scientific basis, raising concerns over scientific illiteracy[25]. A significant minority of people believe astrology has a potential scientific basis, raising concerns over scientific illiteracy[26].
Several individuals, most notably French psychologist and statistician Michel Gauquelin, claimed to have found correlation, but not causation, between some planetary positions and certain traits such as vocations. Gauquelin's most frequently cited case is known as the Mars effect, which correlates the diurnal position of Mars at birth with eminence in sports. Since its original publication in 1955 the Mars effect has been subject to numerous studies claiming either to replicate or refute it. Gauquelin also claimed an astrological correlation of the diurnal position of Saturn at birth to eminence among French physicians (the Saturn effect).[27] In 1988 and 1996, German Professor of psychology Suitbert Ertel published the most recent claim for a Mars effect, with evidence suggesting that it increased in proportion to the eminence of the athletes.[28][29][30][31]
Astrological researchers also claim to have found numerous replicated correlations in various single trait samples besides eminence in sports, for example, red hair,[32] alcoholism,[33] and work-related injuries.[34] Although these latter findings are known and accepted within the astrological community, they have not been recognized or published within mainstream science, and therefore have not been put through the rigors of the scientific peer-review process.[35]
Critics contend that where tested against personality tests, modern western astrologers have shown a consistent lack of predictive power.[36] [37] Disproof is made more difficult because astrology does not claim correlation to personality tests and individuals' views of themselves (as reported in personality tests) may be flawed.[38] When testing for cognitive, behavioral, physical and other variables, one study found no support for the hypothesis that two people born at nearly the same time and place would necessarily have similar outcomes in behavior as defined by the test. Although this study purportedly researched "time twins" it failed by remarkable oversight to report on any astrologicaly timed events in the lives of the subjects.[39]
Skeptics of astrology also suggest that the perceived accuracy of astrological predictions and descriptions of one's personality can be accounted for by the fact that we tend to exaggerate positive 'hits' and overlook whatever does not really fit, especially when vague language is used (see Forer effect).[40]
Supporters of astrology argue that the prevailing attitudes and motives of opponents of astrology introduce conscious or unconscious bias in the formulation of flimsy hypotheses to be tested and the reporting of results.[41] Tests and criticism of astrology by skeptics has sometimes taken the form of debunking campaigns or contests with offers of prize money, ostensibly for the proof that astrology does work.[42][43][44]
Notes and references
^ Galileo, Astrology and the Scientific Revolution: Another Look http://www.stanford. edu/dept/HPS/colloquia0405.html
^ Muller, A & Ertel, S, ‘1083 Members of the French Académy de Médecine’, Astroforschungsdaten (Vol 5), Waldmohr: A.P.Muller
^ Professor Ertel's titles, ordered by content http://www.psych.uni-goettingen. de/home/ertel/ertel-dir/myresearch/2publications/01a62c92a00f39503.html
^ Discussion of Mars eminence effect http://www.planetos.info/mmf.html
^ Ertel, S, 'Raising the Hurdle for the Athletes' Mars Effect: Association Co-Varies With Eminence', Journal of Scientific Exploration, Vol 2, No 1 http://www. scientificexploration.org/jse/abstracts/v2n1a4.php
^ How Ertel rescued the Gauquelin effect http://www.astrozero.co. uk/astroscience/koll1ge.pdf
^ O'Neil, Mike. "The Switching Control Applied to Hill and Thompson's Redhead Data" Correlation, vol. 11(1) p. 24 (1991)
^ Urban-Lurain, Mark. "Astrology As Science: A Statistical Approach" http://www. astrodatabank.com/Astrology_Research.htm
^ Rob Nanninga -"The Astrotest" - Correlation, Northern Winter 1996/97, 15(2), p. 14-20. http://www.skepsis.nl/astrot.html
^ Skeptical Studies in Astrology, report of Shawn Carlson's double-blind test of astrology published in Nature (December 5, 1985) http://psychicinvestigator. com/demo/AstroSkc.htm
^ [Is Astrology relevant to conciousness and Psi? http://www.imprint.co. uk/pdf/Dean.pdf]
^ Geoffrey Dean and Ivan W. Kelly, Is Astrology Relevant to Consciousness and Psi? , Journal of Consciousness Studies, 10, No. 6–7, 2003, pp. 175–198 PDF http://www.imprint.co.uk/pdf/Dean.pdf
^ M. Harding, Prejudice in Astrological Research, Correlation, Vol 19(1) http://www. astrozero.co.uk/astroscience/harding.htm
^ [Is Astrology relevant to conciousness and Psi? http://www.imprint.co. uk/pdf/Dean.pdf]
^ One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge (James Randi Educational Foundation) http://www.randi.org/research/index.html
